Fractal and 3D Modeling of the Mineralization in the Garijgan Mining Area, Eastern Iran

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

• Hadi Alinia ¹
• Mohammad Mahdi Khatib ²
• Mohammad Hossein Zarrinkoub ²
• Majid Kouhestanian ³

¹ .Ph.D., Mining Group, Atlas Afrooz Shargh Company, Mashhad, Iran; Ph.D., Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

² Professor, Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

³ M.Sc., Mining Group, Atlas Afrooz Shargh Company, Mashhad, Iran

10.22067/econg.2025.1140

Abstract

The Garijgan mineral deposit is a classic NW-SE trending, nonparallel shear zone located 25 km south of Khousf city in South Khorasan Province, eastern Iran. The distribution pattern of fractures and ore veins was investigated by combining remote sensing, fractal modeling, and 3D modeling. In the fractal modeling, the study area was divided into a 19-cell grid. After mapping the structural elements, the fractal dimension was determined using the box-counting method. The results indicate that the highest fractal dimension (1.8378) occurs in the central part of the area, suggesting greater tectonic activity in that part. This could potentially be related to intrusive bodies at depth. Based on fault structures (57 faults in 246 measurements) and 33 mineral veins mapping in 19 cells, and the results from the analysis of the latest stress phase (σ₁ = 3.05), potential slip zones along the 57 faults were mapped with values ranging from 0 to 1. The fault surfaces were then converted into 18,615 points, and the potential slip zones were spatially delineated. This modeling yielded both the volume of open spaces resulted from fracturing and the potential volume of fluid-filled spaces. The results indicate that from the total open spaces (384,588,750 m³, equivalent to 46.11% of total volume), approximately 306,787 m³ could have been filled with fluids. In other words, 0.08% of the total open spaces had the potential to be filled with fluids (underground water, ore-bearing fluids, etc.). Therefore, this modeling, by determining both the open space volumes and potential fluid-filled spaces, can serve as the first step in mineral exploration planning. The results provide a basis for determining drilling locations and other exploration activities in exploration targets.
 
Introduction
The Garijgan mining area is located 25 km south of Khousf city in South Khorasan Province in the east of Iran. Structurally situated in the eastern part of the Lut Block, the area is bounded by Doroune Fault to the north, Sistan Suture Zone and Nehbandan Fault to the east, and Nayband Fault to the west. The activity of the Nehbandan and Nayband strike-slip faults, along with their subsidiary branches, has resulted in numerous shear zones in the region (Alinia et al., 2023). These tectonic features act as structural weaknesses, and typically serve as suitable pathways for the migration and deposition of ore-forming fluids (Fabricio-Silva et al., 2018). The study area contains a small, non-parallel shear zone where mineralization has occurred along some of its fractures (Khatib et al., 2019).
The aim of this study is to investigate the distribution of mineralization up to a depth of 300 meters using fractal and 3D modeling. The primary objectives of these models are to estimate the volume of open spaces resulted from fracturing and the proportion of the spaces probably filled with fluids.
 
Materials and methods
This research combines field studies and remote sensing analyses to statistically evaluate fractures. Landsat 8 and ASTER satellite images were processed to highlight lineaments. For a more detailed structural analysis, the study area was divided into a grid of 19 cells (each one 1 × 1 cubic kilometers). Structural features were mapped, and rose diagrams of lineaments were generated for each cell. Then, using fractal modeling, the distribution pattern of faults in the region was determined.
In the next step, using Win-Tensor software, the principal stress direction (σ₁) was calculated for each grid, and the focal mechanism resulting from fault kinematics was plotted, leading to the reconstruction of the paleostress pattern of the region.
Finally, to assess the distribution of open spaces resulting from fracturing and the extent of fluid-filled spaces, based on fault structures (57 faults through 246 measurements) and 33 ore veins mapping across 19 cells, 3D modeling were conducted up to 300 meters depth using Move, Oasis Montaj, and Geosoft software.
 
Discussion
Fractal modeling in this study utilized surface and subsurface litho-geochemical data, applying the box-counting method for each cell. The results indicate that Cell I, with a fractal dimension of 1.8378, exhibits the highest value. Overall, the central part of the area shows the greatest fractal dimension, suggesting high tectonic activity in that region. This may reflect lower tectonic maturity and higher dynamic processes in that part.
 
Next, Move and Geosoft software were used to identify areas prone to sliding on fault surfaces. The results of the paleo-stress study (Alinia, 2023; Alinia et al., 2023) indicate the occurrence of at least two stress phases related to the Eocene period (in the northeast-southwest direction) and the Quaternary period (in the north-south direction). Based on the direction of maximum stress, fault data (strike, dip, rake, etc.) and mapped ore veins (strike and dip) were put into Move software and extrapolated to a depth of 300 meters.
To quantify open spaces along fault surfaces, 18’615 fault-related points (Alinia, 2023) up to 300 meters deep were analyzed in Oasis Montaj, generation a zoning map of areas prone to opening.
3D modeling and observational data revealed that 306’787 cubic meters of the total open spaces (384’588’750 cubic meters; i.e. 11.46 percent, up to 300 meters depth) could have been filled by fluids, representing 0.08 percents of the total open spaces in the Garijgan area.
 
Results
Fractal modeling was applied to assess the distribution pattern of fractures and ore veins in the Garijgan area. The results indicate that the highest fractal dimension is located in the central part of the area, which coincides with high tectonic activity in that region.
Additionally, 3D modeling of faults and ore veins (up to a depth of 300 meters) was done using software in order to investigate the open spaces resulted from fracturing and the open spaces filled with the fluids. The results indicate that 384’588’750 cubic meters of open spaces created due to fracturing (equivalent to 11.46% of the total volume within the area up to a depth of 300 meters). Out of these open spaces, 306’787 cubic meters could have been filled with fluids. In other words, 0.08% of the total open spaces could occupied by fluids (water, ore-bearing fluids, …).
Thus, this modeling, by determining the volume of open spaces and the volume of spaces potentially filled with fluids, can serve as the first step in the exploratory program for mining areas, allowing the location of drillings and other exploration activities to be determined.

Keywords

• fractal modeling
• 3D modeling
• open spaces
• paleostress
• Garijgan
• eastern Iran

---

References

Abdollahi Sharif, J., Imamalipour, A., Alipour, A. and Mokhtarian Asl, M., 2010. The station of modeling the mine resources in economical geology investigations and determination of mineral deposits genes & reserves. Journal of Economic Geology, 2(1): 51–59. (in Persian) https://doi.org/10.22067/econg.v2i1.3685

Afzal, P., Fadakar Alghalandis, Y., Khakzad, A., Moarefvand, P. and Rashidnejad Omran, N., 2011. Delineation of mineralization zones in porphyry Cu deposits by fractal concentration–volume modeling. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 108(3): 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2011.03.005

Afzal, P., Fadakar Alghalandis, Y., Moarefvand, P., Rashidnejad Omran, N. and Asadi Haroni, H., 2012. Application of power-spectrum-volume fractal method for detecting hypogene, supergene enrichment, leached and barren zones in Kahang Cu porphyry deposit, Central Iran. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 112: 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2011.08.002

Afzal, P., Gholami, H., Madani, N., Yasrebi, A.B. and Sadeghi, B., 2023. Mineral resource classification using geostatistical and fractal simulation in the Masjed Daghi Cu–Mo porphyry deposit, NW Iran. Minerals, 13(3): 370. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030370

Ahmadi, H. and Pekkan, E., 2021. Fault-based geological lineaments extraction using remote sensing and GIS- A review. Geosciences, 11(5): 183. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11050183

Alinia, H., 2023. Fractal analysis of volumetric strain in brittle shear zones to estimate vein-style mineral reserves: case studies of Galle Chah-Shourab and Garijgan mineral deposits in eastern Iran. Ph.D. thesis, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran, 230 pp. (in Persian with English abstract)

Alinia, H., Khatib, M.M. and Zarrinkoub, M.H., 2022. The relationship between vein-style mineralization and structural evolution in Galle Chah shear zone, eastern Iran. Tectonics Journal, 6(21): 36–52. (in Persian with English abstract) https://doi.org/10.22077/jt.2023.5758.1144

Alinia. H., Khatib. M.M. and Zarrinkoub. M.H., 2023. Study of the relationship between fracture geometry and vein-style mineralization using paleostress analysis in the Garijgan shear zone, eastern Iran.  Advanced Applaied Geology, 13(3): 624–640. (in Persian with English abstract) https://doi.org/10.22055/aag.2022.41920.2320

Aliyari, F., Rastad, E. and Zengqian, H., 2007. Orogenic Gold Mineralization in the Qolqoleh Deposit, Northwestern Iran. Resource Geology, 57(3): 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-3928.2007.00022.x

Bazargani Golshan, M., Arian, M., Afzal, P., Daneshvar Saein, L. and Aleali, M., 2024. Outlining of high-quality parts of coal by concentration–volume fractal model in North Kochakali coal deposit, Central Iran. Journal of Mining and Environment, 15(2): 557–579. https://doi.org/10.22044/jme.2023.13446.2482

Bazargani Golshan, M., Arian, M., Afzal, P., Daneshvar Saein, L. and Aleali, M., 2025. Application of fractal models for determining the relationship between REEs and faults in North Kochakali coal deposit, Central Iran. Scientific Reports, 15: 1276. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-85795-5

Cheng, N., Hou, Q., Shi, M., He, M., Liu, Q., Yan, F. and Liu, H., 2019. New Insight into the Genetic Mechanism of Shear Zone Type Gold Deposits from Muping-Rushan Metallogenic Belt (Jiaodong Peninsula of Eastern China). Minerals, 9(12): 775. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9120775

Daya, A.A., 2012. Reserve estimation of central part of Choghart north anomaly iron ore deposit through ordinary kriging method. International Journal of Mining Science and Technology, 22(4): 573–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2012.01.022

Fabricio-Silva, W., Rosière, C.A. and Bühn, B., 2018. The shear zone-related gold mineralization at the Tourmaline deposit, Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Brazil: structural evolution and the two stages of mineralization. Mineralium Deposita, 54: 347–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-018-0811-7

Gholamzadeh, M., Rahimi, B., Ghaemi, F. and Ahmadi Rohani, R., 2015. Investigation of faults and fractures in Akhlamad (north west Binaloud) based on the satellite data processing and studying fractal characteristics of fracture systems Tectonics Journal, 1(2): 77–92. (in Persian with English abstract) https://doi.org/10.22077/jt.2015.286

Jentzer, M., Fournier, M., Agard, Ph., Omrani, J., Khatib M.M. and Whitechurch, H., 2017. Neogene to Present paleostress field in Eastern Iran (Sistan belt) and implications for regional geodynamics. Tectonics, 36(2): 287–303. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016TC004275

Jin, X., Wang, G., Tang, P., Hu, Ch., Liu, Y. and Zhang, S., 2020. 3D geological modelling and uncertainty analysis for 3D targeting in Shanggong gold deposit (China). Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 210: 106442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106442

Karaman, M., Kumral, Yildirim, M.D., Doner, K.Z., Afzal, P. and Abdelnasser, A., 2021. Delineation of the porphyry-skarn mineralized zones (NW Turkey) using concentration–volume fractal model. Geochemistry, 81(4): 125802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2021.125802

Karimpour, M.H., Stern, C.R., Farmer, L., Saadat, S. and Malekzadeh Shafaroudi, A., 2011. Review of age, Rb-Sr geochemistry and petrogenesis of Jurassic to Quaternary igneous rocks in Lut block, Eastern Iran. Geopersia, 1(1): 19–‌54. https://doi.org/10.22059/jgeope.2011.22162

Kavyani Sadr, Kh., Rahimi, B. and Khatib, M.M., 2022a. Investigating the relationship between the dimension of the Riedel fault blocks and number of open spaces in brittle shear zones: analogue and numerical modeling Tectonics Journal, 5(17): 57–74. (in Persian with English abstract) https://doi.org/10.22077/jt.2021.4452.1115

Kavyani-Sadr, Kh., Rahimi B., Khatib, M.M. and Kim, Y-S., 2022b. Assessment of open spaces related to Riedel-shears dip effect in brittle shear zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 154: 104486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2021.104486

Kemp, E.A., 2007. 3D geological modeling supporting mineral exploration. In: W.D. Goodfellow (Editor), Mineral Deposits of Canada: A Synthesis of Major Deposit Types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces, and Exploration Methods, Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division, Special Publication, 5, pp. 1051–1061. Retrieved May 19, 2025 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362312931_3-D_geological_modelling_supporting_mineral_exploration

Khatib, M.M., Sadeghi Farshbaf, P., Zarrinkoub, M.H. and Gholami, E., 2019. Structural controlling in the formation of vein-style mines in eastern Iran. Proceedings of the 8th Iranian Mining Engineering Conference, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran.

Li, X., Yuan, F., Zhang, M., Jia C., Jowitt, S.M., Ord, A., Zheng, T., Hu, X. and Li, Y., 2015. Three-dimensional mineral prospectivity modeling for targeting of concealed mineralization within the Zhonggu iron orefield, Ningwu Basin, China. Ore Geology Reviews, 71: 633–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.06.001

Liu, Zh., Guo, Zh., Wang, J., Wang, R., Shan, W., Zhong, H., Chen, Y., Chen, Y., Deng, H. and Mao, X., 2023. Three-Dimensional Mineral Prospectivity Modeling with the Integration of Ore-Forming Computational Simulation in the Xiadian Gold Deposit, Eastern China. Applied Sciences, 13(18): 10277. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810277

Madondo, J., Canet, C., Nuñez-Useche, F. and Gonzalez-Partida, E., 2021. Geology and geochemistry of jasperoids from the ‘Montaña de Manganeso’ district, San Luis Potosí, north-central Mexico. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geologicas, 38 (3): 193–209. https://doi.org/10.22201/cgeo.20072902e.2021.3.1651

Mao, X., Zhang, W., Liu, Zh., Ren, J., Bayless, R.C. and Deng, H., 2020. 3D Mineral Prospectivity Modeling for the Low-Sulfidation Epithermal Gold Deposit: A Case Study of the Axi Gold Deposit, Western Tianshan, NW China. Minerals, 10(3): 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/min10030233

Meng, F., Li, X., Chen, Y., Ye, R. and Yuan, F., 2022. Three-Dimensional Mineral Prospectivity Modeling for Delineation of Deep-Seated Skarn-Type Mineralization in Xuancheng– Magushan Area, China. Minerals, 12(9): 1174. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12091174

Paravarzar, S., Mokhtari, Z., Afzal, P. and Aliyari, F., 2023. Application of an approximate geostatistical simulation algorithm to delineate the gold mineralized zones characterized by fractal methodology. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 200: 104865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2023.104865

Sun, T. and Liangming, L., 2014. Delineating the complexity of Cu–Mo mineralization in a porphyry intrusion by computational and fractal modeling: A case study of the Chehugou depositi n the Chifeng district, Inner Mongolia, China. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 144 (Part A): 128–143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.02.015

Vahdati Daneshmand, F. and Kholghi, M.H., 1987. Geological map of Khousf (scale: 1:100000). Geological Survey and Mineral Exploration of Iran.

Wang, G. and Huange, L., 2012. 3D geological modeling for mineral resource assessment of the Tongshan Cu deposit, Heilongjiang Province, China. Geoscience Frontiers, 3(4): 483–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2011.12.012

Zanchi, A., Francesca, S., Stefano, Z., Simone, S. and Graziano, G., 2009. 3D reconstruction of complex geological bodies: examples from the Alps. Computers and Geosciences, 35(1): 49–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2007.09.003