Geodynamic and metallogeny of porphyry copper deposits and important geochemical characteristics in exploration for tin deposits

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

Mohammad Hassan Karimpour ¹

Azadeh Malekzadeh Shafaroudi ²

¹ Professor, Department of Geology and Research Center for Ore Deposit of Eastern Iran, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado, CB-399, Boulder, CO 80309, USA

² Professor, Department of Geology and Research Center for Ore Deposit of Eastern Iran, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

10.22067/econg.2026.1171

Abstract

This paper reviews the important factors controlling the reserves and grades in various porphyry copper and tin deposits. The largest Miocene porphyry copper deposits in Iran have been discovered in the Saveh-Nain-Jiroft magmatic belt (SNJMB). Three types of magnetite I-type granitoids are exposed in the SNJMB. The geochemistry of the adakitic I-type granitoids of the large porphyry copper deposits of the Nain-Jiroft magmatic belt (NJMB) was compared with the non-adakitic I-type granitoids associated with the porphyry copper deposits of the Saveh-Nain magmatic belt (SNMB) and the barren non-adakitic I-type granitoids of the SNJMB. Several factors affect the formation, size, and grade of porphyry copper deposits in the SNJMB, including: thermal gradient (cold-hot slab), amount of water released at appropriate depth (more than 70 km), percentage of partial melting (about 15 to 25 percent is appropriate), presence of super-oxidant conditions at the source that cause a positive Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* ratio between 1 and 1.6), number and type of intrusion interference, intensity and extension of alteration and gossan zones, host rock, and suitable structures. In spite of the presence of intrusive rocks, types of alteration, and the presence of 10 percent pyrite, copper and gold mineralization has not formed in the Simorgh area. The S- and A-type tin-bearing granites of China in comparsion with the barren S-type granitoids of Iran (associated with the continental collision zone and orogenic zone) show a silica-rich granitic composition, Y and Rb/Sr enrichment and Ba depletion, a strongly negative Eu anomaly and an Eu/Eu* value less than 0.1, hyper reducing conditions, and a (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)i ratio greater than 0.711.
 
Introduction
Porphyry copper deposits are usually formed by subvolcanic, hydrated, oxidized I-type granitoids with intermediate composition (Richards, 2015). However, not all I-type granitoids have the potential to be fertile, and even in a deposit, multiple stocks intrude that formed under almost the same conditions, but only a few of them produce porphyry copper deposits, which is very questionable?
Tin deposits are divided into porphyry, skarn, greisen, placer, and low-temperature hydrothermal deposits that can be emplaced in carbonate rocks.
Based on geodynamic conditions, tin mineralization can be formed by two different types of granites: 1- S-type granites in the continental collision zone and 2- A-type granites in the intracontinental rift environment. Both of these granites have a continental crustal origin. Of course, not all S- and A-type granites have sufficient potential for tin ore formation. So, certain conditions must prevail in the origin and geochemistry of the resulting magma, which will be discussed in this paper.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the genetic and geodynamic factors affecting the formation, reserves, and grade of Iranian porphyry copper deposits and the classification of I-type granitoids associated with these deposits, as well as to investigate the important geodynamic factors and geochemical variables in the infertility or fertility of S-type granites for tin ore deposits.
 
Result
Figure 15 shows that, based on the Sr/Y ratio versus Y content, the fertile magnetite I-type granitoids associated with porphyry copper deposits of the Nain-Jiroft are located in the adakite range (granitoids have Sr/Y ratios ​​between 70 and 170 and Y values ​​less than 13 ppm). In contrast, the barren granitoids, which are mainly located in the Saveh to Nain, are non-adakite (granitoids have Sr/Y ratios ​​between 5 and 15 and Y values ​​greater than 10 ppm) and are plotted in the normal arc field (Figure 15). The fertile granitoids of the Dali deposit are located in the middle and are non-adakite (granitoids have Sr/Y ratios ​​between 20 and 25 and Y values ​​greater than 15 ppm).  
Figure 25 shows that the fertile adakitic I-type granitoids associated with the porphyry copper deposits of the Nain-Jiroft belt have a high (La/Yb)n ratio (between 10 and 30) and an Eu/Eu* ratio of more than 1.1. The value of the Eu/Eu* ratio can indicate the oxidizing-reducing conditions in the source of magma. The Eu/Eu* ratio indicates that the mineralogical composition of the source rock and the melting conditions were super-oxidizing. Therefore, these granitoids originated from a super-oxidizing source and formed at great depth (Figure 25). While the Tertiary barren granitoids of the Saveh-Nain-Jiroft belt, with a (La/Yb)n ratio between 1 and 7, originated from shallow depths and the Eu/Eu* ratios are mainly less than 1.1, indicating more reducing conditions in origin and greater involvement of the continental crust (Figure 25). The samples from the Dali deposit are also in the middle, meaning that in terms of oxidation conditions, they were oxidant but less than the fertile granitoids of the Nain-Jiroft magmatic belt, and in terms of depth, they are in the middle of the fertile and barren granitoids (Figure 25).
According to Karimpour and Sadeghi (2019), the subducted oceanic slab in the Saveh-Nain-Jiroft belt was of the warm-cold type with a thermal gradient between 8 and 12 °C/km (Figure 27). This is very important and has led to the release of a smaller amount of water in the fore-arc region (depth 30 to 50 km) and the release of more than 80% of water in the arc region (depth 100 to 130 km) (Figure 27). The release of water causes a decrease in the melting point and plays an important role in the rate of partial melting. Under water-saturated conditions, 20 to 25% partial melting occurs and a magma with a high fluid content is produced that can carry a lot of copper and form porphyry copper deposits with appropriate reserves and grades.
The Rb content in the tin-bearing granites of China is very high, so the Rb/Sr ratio is between 30 and 100, while this ratio is less than 1.5 in the barren S-type granitoids of Iran. Also, the Eu/Eu* ratio in the barren granitoids of Iran is between 0.3 and 0.7, indicating a reduced environment of the continental collision zone, but this ratio in the tin-bearing granites of China is less than 0.04, indicating a strong reduced origin (Figure 22).
The Y content in granite samples from tin deposits in China is between 50 and 200 ppm, while the content of this element in the barren S-type granitoids of Iran is between 20 and 40 ppm (Figure 23). The barren S-type granitoids of Iran also formed in the continental collision zone with Eu/Eu* values ​​between 0.3 and 0.7 and the (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)i ratios are between 0.707 and 0.708, indicating the role of the continental crust in the formation of magma. However, the tin-bearing A and S-type granites of China with Eu/Eu* values ​​less than 0.04 and (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)i ratios greater than 0.711 and 0.718 indicate a strong reduced origin in the continental crust (Figure 31).
 
Discussion and Conclusion
Table 8 summarizes the geochemical, isotopic and magnetic susceptibility of I-type granitoids associated with porphyry copper deposits in the Saveh-Nain-Jiroft magmatic belt and eastern Iran. Based on these characteristics, I-type granitoids can be classified into four types: adakite-I, adakite-II, Regular-I and Regular-II. Several factors play key role in the formation, grade, and storage of gold and copper in porphyry copper deposits that can be considered in their exploration. The most important of these parameters are:

1. The thermal gradient of the subducted slab, which should be of the cold-warm type with a thermal gradient between 8 and 12 degrees per kilometer.
2. The percentage of partial melting for magma production, which is suitable in the range of 15 to 25 percent.
3. The amount of water released in the subduction zone at suitable depths for partial melting (depths greater than 70 km).

4.Partial melting of rocks with the suitable composition and melting under the suitable conditions of oxygen concentration (super-oxidant environment and oxygen fugacity DFMQ+1.5).
5.A positive Eu anomaly and a Eu/Eu* ratio between 1 and 1.6, which indicate super-oxidant conditions in the magma source.

6. The number of intrusions is directly related to the amount of reserves and grades.

7.The manner of intrusions that causes synergism.
8 Barren intrusions and their manner in which they interfere with fertile intrusions and their temporal relationship with fertile intrusions, causing a decrease in grade.
9.The percentage and radius of the pyrite-bearing zone.
10.The intensity and extension of alteration zones.
11.The intensity and extension of the gossan zone.

12. Host rocks with suitable porosity and structures for the concentration of ore-bearing solutions.

13.The proximity of limestone that lead to skarn mineralization.
Some of these factors are of particular importance in the formation of a porphyry copper deposit. For example, the Simorgh exploration area in South Khorasan Province (31.00 N, 59.23 E) has superficial evidence of porphyry copper mineralization, but lacks copper mineralization (Borabadi et al., 2018). Based on Figures 33 and 34 and the comparison of the geochemistry of the source rocks of the porphyry copper deposits (NJMB) and Simorgh, two very important issues can be concluded: 1- The mineralogical composition and the presence of organic matter in the source rock of Simorgh caused partial melting and formation of magma under hyperreductive conditions. The sulfur content of the source rock was very good. Melting under reduced conditions prevents copper from entering the magma. Therefore, the amount of oxygen fugacity during magma formation is very important in the fertilization of intrusions. 2- The depth of magma formation in the Simorgh granitoids was also much lower compared to porphyry copper deposits (NJMB). Certainly, the mineralogical composition, copper content of the source rock, and the percentage of partial melting played an important role in the lack of copper and gold mineralization in the Simorgh.
Tin deposits associated with S and A-type granitoids have the following geochemical characteristics, and these parameters can be important exploration keys for the detection of fertility of intrusions:

1. The chemical composition of the intrusions must be a silica-rich granite with a SiO₂ content of more than 75%.
Depletion of Ba (less than 200 ppm) and enrichment of Y (more than 60 ppm) and the Rb/Sr ratio (more than 30) are seen.
A strong negative anomaly in the element Eu and the Eu/Eu* ratio less than 0.1indicate a strong reduced origin. The mineralogical composition of the source rock and the presence of organic matter in partial melting conditions causes hyper reduced conditions in magma formation.
The (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)i ratio is greater than 0.711, which confirms the great thickness of the continental crust and the highly reduced origin of the magma.
The Rb/Sr+Y ratio in the fertile intrusions for tin is greater than 100.

 

Keywords

Geodynamic

Grade and reserve

Porphyry copper deposits

Granitoids geochemistry

Tin mineralization

Exploration keys

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