Ore Structures, geochemistry, O-isotopes and fluid inclusion of the Ediacaran Banded Iron Formation at the Koushk area, Northeast Bafq, Central Iran

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

Kiamars Hosseini ¹

Mohammad Yazdi ²

Hossein Azizi ³

¹ Ph.D. student in Economic Geology, Department of Minerals and Groundwater Resources, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

² Professor, Faculty member, Department of Minerals and Groundwater Resources, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

³ Professor, Department of Mining, Faculty of Engineering, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran

10.22067/econg.2025.1163

Abstract

The Koushk iron deposit is situated northeast of Bafq in Yazd Province, within the Central Iran Structural Zone. Fe- mineralization in the Koushk area is hosted by a rhythmic sequence of dolomite, jaspilite, rhyolitic tuff, metasomatite, diorite sill and diabasic dyke with various ore structures. Three generations of hematite mineralization have been identified: 1- shining hematite flakes(oligiste) mineralization in a disseminated form associated with the feeder zone, 2- hematite flakes vein mineralization associated with carbonate cap, jaspilite, cherts and metasomatite, 3- patch-like mineralization such as massive jaspilitic hematite. Geochemical discrimination utilizing Fe/Ti-Al (Al+Fe+Mn), Fe-P, Co-Ni, V-Ti, V-Ni, and Ni/(Cr+Mn)-Ti+V diagrams indicates an affinity with Banded Iron Formations (BIFs). Specifically, in the Al/(Al+Fe+Mn) versus Fe/Ti diagram, the Koushk ores plot within the fields of hydrothermal deposits from the Red Sea and East Pacific Rise, as well as Neoproterozoic BIFs. Furthermore, the Ti/V vs. Al diagram suggests that the hematite, jasperite, and hematite flakes ores are analogous to unmetamorphosed to greenschist-facies metamorphosed BIFs. The REE+Y patterns are characterized by LREEs enrichment, low to moderate Y/Ho ratios, semi flat HREE profiles, a near-zero to weakly negative Ce anomaly, and a pronounced positive Eu anomaly. δ¹⁸O values in massive hematite and hematite flakes are in equilibrium with seawater and consistent with global BIFs, though they indicate a higher degree of isotopic fractionation compared to typical Algoma- and Superior-type BIFs. Microthermometric studies of fluid inclousin indicate the role of fluid mixing and temperature reduction in iron mineralization in the Kushk area and expressive the presence of hydrothermal fluids with temperatures of 200-300°C for the origin of Fe-oxy-hydroxides formed by seawater-basalt interaction and syn-glaciogenic meltwater influxes.
 
Introduction
BIFs are chemical sedimentary rocks, often described as exhalative in origin, which are typically thin-bedded or laminated and contain at least 15% iron, and belong to Archean, Early Proterozoic and Neoproterozoic time (Li et al., 2014a, Taner and Chemam, 2015). Although Algoma-, Superior-, and Rapitan-type BIFs have been extensively studied, the global distribution and characteristics of Ediacaran-aged BIFs remain comparatively poorly constrained (Lan et al., 2019; Aftabi et al., 2021). A consensus views BIFs as iron-rich chemical precipitates or exhalates (Peter, 2003; Ohmoto et al., 2006). Notably, Ohmoto et al. (2006) specifically proposed a genetic model involving the mixing of submarine hydrothermal fluids (at temperatures of 200–350 °C) with ambient seawater.
 
Result
An comprehensive investigation of the ore structures, petrographic features, geochemical properties, and oxygen isotope compositions of iron ore at Koushk area indicates the following points: The mineralization is interpreted as an exhalative-hydrothermal system of Ediacaran age, genetically affiliated with BIFs. The ore is hosted within a rhythmic sequence of dolomite, jaspilite, rhyolite-rhyolitic tuff, and metasomatite, intruded by diorite sills and diabasic dykes. Despite subsequent chemical alteration, the primary banded, layered, and intercalated structures of the BIF are largely preserved. This interpretation is supported by REE+Y systematics, which are consistent with a primary depositional environment characteristic of BIFs. δ¹⁸O values of hematite fall within the range of global BIFs and are in equilibrium with seawater. Collectively, the evidence points to ore formation from low-temperature hydrothermal fluids (200–300 °C) in an oxidic oceanic setting, where iron was mobilized through seawater-basalt interaction and deposited as oxy-hydroxides, potentially influenced by freshwater influxes from syn-glaciogenic meltwater.
 
 
Materials and methods
A comprehensive sampling campaign collected 142 specimens from various rock units and geological sections to represent the full spectrum of mineralized and host rocks in the study area. To further characterize the ore mineralogy, five samples of hematite- and hematite flakes-bearing jaspilite were analyzed using a SEM at Aria Electron Optics Company, while the specific chemistry of hematite was performed by EPMA method on one sample at the Department of Earth Science, Shimane University, Japan. For bulk-rock geochemistry, 11 samples were analyzed by XRF at Tarbiat Modares University, Iran, and a separate suite of eleven samples was processed for trace elements by ICP-MS using a Perkin Elmer NexION 300 instrument at Zarazma Company Laboratory. Microthermometric studies of fluid inclusions were performed on quartz from one sample at Tarbiat Modares University, Iran, and the oxygen isotope composition (δ¹⁸O) of six hematite samples was measured at Arak University.
 
Discussion
The syngenetic volcano-sedimentary origin of the Koushk hematite mineralization is evidenced by primary hematite banding interlayered with dolomite, rhyolitic tuff, and metasomatized units. The bulk ore geochemistry shares key affinities with Neoproterozoic glaciogenic BIFs. Fe/Ti versus Al/(Al+Fe+Mn) diagram, the compositions plot within the field defined by rift-related exhalative hydrothermal deposits, such as those from the Red Sea and East Pacific Rise, and fall within the 60–90% range for metalliferous sediments. This genetic model invokes the leaching of elements via seawater-basalt interaction under anoxic conditions beneath a global ice sheet, generating hydrothermal fluids enriched in H₄SiO₄ and Fe²⁺, consistent with mechanisms proposed by Lechte et al. (2019). Hydrothermal activity generated proximal alteration halos within the submarine basaltic and rhyolitic rocks at temperatures of 350–450 °C (Galley, 2003). As these fluids evolved and migrated into distal zones, lower-temperature (100–250 °C) solutions, enriched in H₄SiO₄ and Fe²⁺ and associated with chlorite, carbonate, and clay mineral assemblages, were established (Galley, 2003). The low-T (<250◦C) exhalative hydrothermal fluids are more enriched in total Fe²⁺ (FeCl₂+FeCl+Fe²⁺) (>1mM) than the H₂S, Cu, Zn, and Pb (<1mM), thus are of typical BIFs fluids (Ohmoto et al., 2006). This range of temperature has also been suggested for the conversion of Fe-oxy-hydroxides to magnetite-hematite formed during post-diagenetic to greenschist facies metamorphism (Spry et al., 2000; Aftabi et al., 2021). Geochemical evidence, including elevated Al₂O₃, TiO₂, Zr, Th, and high Co/Zn-Fe ratios (>1), points to a significant detrital input from glaciogenic dropstones sourced from the upper continental crust. While such detrital influx can explain the lowered Y/Ho ratios in some BIFs (Wang et al., 2018), ambient seawater also influences these signatures, at times producing chondritic Y/Ho values. Although incorporation of glaciogenic or non-glaciogenic detrital materials can drive Y/Ho ratios toward the average upper crustal value of ~28 (Tamehe et al., 2022), samples with low ratios reflect the preferential scavenging of Ho over Y by co-precipitating Fe-Mn oxyhydroxides (Bau and Dulski, 1996).
 
Acknowledgements
The authors appreciate Shahid beheshti University Research Council that supported this work. The Director General and personal of the Koushk Mine Company are acknowledged for their assistance in the field works.

Keywords

Banded Iron Ediacaran

Geochemistry

Stable isotope

Micro-thermometry

Koushk

Central Iran

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